Doyle, Michael and Nicholas Sambanis. "Peacekeeping Operations", In The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations, edited by Sam Daws and Thomas G. Weiss. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.

Doyle, Michael and Nicholas Sambanis. "Peacekeeping Operations", In The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations, edited by Sam Daws and Thomas G. Weiss. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.

• In 1992, Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali outlined four roles that he expected the UN to play in peace and conflict in the post-Cold War era: peace enforcement, militarized forces acting with a UNSC mandate to prevent violence; peacemaking, providing mediation between conflicting parties; peacekeeping, deployment of troops in consenting countries as a confidence-building measure; and post-conflict reconstruction, through programs to improve the social and economic conditions which drive conflict (324).
• There are three generations of peacekeeping. First generation peacekeeping deploys forces to maintain a truce, whereas second generation still depends on national consent, but also engage in broader activities like policing or monitoring of elections. Third generation peacekeeping interferes in national affairs and conducts active military operations, sometimes without national consent, against enemies of peace identified by the UNSC (325).
• First generation peacekeeping was designed to deal with interstate conflict, based on rules of "monitoring, consent, neutrality, nonuse of force, and unarmed peacekeeping". They are used to monitor ceasefires, troop withdrawals, or buffer zones between antagonistic states. It was first used in Sinai following Israeli attacks in 1956 (325).
• Peacekeepers in these missions are meant to be impartial, but not neutral. They are meant to enforce the rules of ceasefires equally, but they are expected to victimize one party over another if that party breaks the terms of peace agreements (325-326).
• These peacekeeping operations were heavily based on the consent of the parties, as the lightly armed units depended on consent to keep focused on core responsibilities and reduce costs (326).
• Second generation peacekeeping is designed to cope with post-civil war situations where consent is limited and state capacity is damaged. In these situations, peacekeepers take over the duties of police and civilian administrations, providing the conditions for lasting peace. By taking part in economic reconstruction and development of state institutions and capacity, it is a fundamental change from first-gen peacekeeping (327).
• As noted by Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali, these operations can involve, "disarming the previously warring parties and the restoration of order, the custody and possible destruction of weapons, repatriating refugees, advisory and training support for security personnel, monitoring elections, advancing efforts to protect human rights, reforming or strengthening governmental institutions and promoting formal and informal processes of political participation" (327).
• Third generation peacekeeping forces exist in situations where states have either refused consent or have not been able to give consent. This can occur in situations of civil war without effective government, during limited interventions in civil wars where only some parties give consent, or enforcing peace agreements rejected by state parties (332).
• Rather than engaging in direct warfare against parties, the UN uses these peacekeeping forces to deny other groups military objectives and dissuade conflict as to force parties into peace negotiations. This is usually done through strategic positioning and threats of overwhelming force in case of noncompliance (332-333).
• UN peacekeeping during the Cold War has a history of great success in resolving inter-state conflict and disputes over territory. It had little success during that period resolving intra-state conflicts or those involving value disputes (326).
• A compendium of all peacekeeping operations, their size, their location, and the result of the action is available on pages 328 to page 331.
• The end of the Cold War triggered the rapid expansion of UN responsibility. Between 1987 and 1994, the number of UNSC resolutions quadrupled and the number of peacekeeping missions tripled. This was accompanied by a massive increase in troops deployed and money spent on these missions, but also by numerous successes which prevent massive civilian deaths in Somalia and Yugoslavia (333).
• The significant failures of the peacekeeping operations in Bosnia and Somalia have resulted in a group of nations arguing that the UN should reduce its involvement in peacekeeping. Instead, they argue, peacekeeping operations should be delegated to regional groups like NATO or the AU, called 'fourth generation peacekeeping' (334).
• Political science literature provides a number of explanation behind the success or failure of peacekeeping operations. Neoliberal theories explain the conflicts as between rational actors over valued goods, either wealth or political power, whereas neorealist theories describe conflict in terms of relative power and security. Constructivists look at how identities and perceived interests drive conflict (334).
• The author proposes that these theories are of limited use to explain peacekeeping operations, instead opting for game theory to provide an explanation through situations of coordination and cooperation. It holds that conflicts are either driven by misinformation and distrust, which can be solved by coordination, or deeply rooted in conflicting interests, which requires transformative action to force parties into cooperation by changing circumstances (335).
• There is evidence that the presence of a peacekeeping force alone can cause some parties to move towards cooperation because of the normative value that the UN brings with it. Their presence can sometimes change dynamics enough to start the peace process (336).
• Which parties in a conflict necessity coordination and which transformative cooperation can sometimes be indicated in peace or ceasefire treaties. Non-compliance with these terms can be useful for identifying spoilers in the conflict, who can be targeted and neutralized. The non-existence of a peace treaty can indicate that more interventionist peacekeeping is necessary (337).
• Successful peacekeeping usually results from mutually harmful stalemates, wherein both parties are uncomfortable with the status quo, but simultaneously feel themselves unable to change the military balance. In these situations, peacekeeping should target those benefiting from the current scenario, 'spoilers', and then work with the remainder that is unhappy with the status quo (337).
• Successful peacekeeping operations are based on a 'triangle' of addressing root causes at the local level, increasing domestic capacity, and establishing an effective and impartial transitional authority. These aspects all reinforce each other in a situation of positive peace, although a particularly strong side of the triangle can make up for weakness elsewhere (338).
• " Developed countries that experience minor civil violence can put themselves back together. The UN is most needed elsewhere, in the less developed countries that have suffered extensive violence" (344).